对人管辖权/属人管辖权 personal jurisdiction

对人管辖权(Personal Jurisdiction)，也有人把它翻译为属人管辖权，考察的是案件应该具体由哪个州的法院审理。举例说明，原告假设要提起一个版权侵权案件。因为版权法属于联邦法院的范畴，其应该去美国的联邦法院提起诉讼。但是美国联邦法院遍布在各个州和地区，究竟该去哪个州的法院起诉被告就是一个对人管辖权的问题。

Personal jurisdiction is a court's jurisdiction over the parties, as determined by the facts in evidence, which bind the parties to a lawsuit, as opposed to subject-matter jurisdiction, which is jurisdiction over the law involved in the suit. Without personal jurisdiction over a party, a court’s rulings or decrees cannot be enforced upon that party, except by comity; i.e., to the extent that the sovereign which has jurisdiction over the party allows the court to enforce them upon that party. A court that has personal jurisdiction has both the authority to rule on the law and facts of a suit and the power to enforce its decision upon a party to the suit. In some cases, territorial jurisdiction may also constrain a court's reach, such as preventing hearing of a case concerning events occurring on foreign territory between two citizens of the home jurisdiction. A similar principle is that of standing or locus standi, which is the ability of a party to demonstrate to the court sufficient connection to and harm from the law or action challenged to support that party's participation in the case. 具体例句如下，可供参考：

例句1

Personal jurisdiction can generally be waived (contrast this with Subject Matter Jurisdiction, which cannot be waived), so if the party being sued appears in a court without objecting to the court's lack of personal jurisdiction over it, then the court will assume that the defendant is waiving any challenge to personal jurisdiction.

属人管辖权一般可以放弃（与不能放弃的标的物管辖权形成对比），因此，如果被诉方出庭时没有对法院对其缺乏属人管辖权提出异议，那么法院将假设被告放弃对属人管辖权的任何质疑。

例句2

The concept of personal jurisdiction in English law has its origin in the idea that a monarch could not exercise power over persons or property located outside of his or her kingdom. To some degree, this was a de facto rule; the monarch's men could not arrest people or seize property outside the kingdom without risking physical conflict with the soldiers and police of other kingdoms. Slowly this principle was incorporated into written law, but problems arose in cases where property owners could not be sued because they had left the kingdom or had died and therefore were not present within the kingdom at the time they were being sued.

英国法律中属人管辖权的概念源于这样一种思想，即君主不能对位于其王国之外的人或财产行使权力。在某种程度上，这是一个事实上的规则；君主的人不能在王国之外逮捕人或夺取财产，否则就会有与其他王国的士兵和警察发生肢体冲突的风险。慢慢地，这一原则被纳入成文法，但在财产所有人不能被起诉的情况下出现了问题，因为他们已经离开王国或已经死亡，因此在他们被起诉时不在王国境内。

例句3

In cases where a defendant challenges personal jurisdiction, a court may still exercise personal jurisdiction if it has independent power to do so. This power is founded in the inherent nature of the State: sovereignty over secular affairs within its territory.

在被告质疑属人管辖权的情况下，如果法院有独立的权力，它仍然可以行使属人管辖权。这种权力源于国家的固有性质：对其领土内的世俗事务拥有主权。

例句4

Personal jurisdiction refers to a court's power to adjudicate the rights and obligations of a person, corporation, or other legal entity within its jurisdictional reach. US courts may exercise personal jurisdiction over a litigant in several ways.

属人管辖权是指法院在其管辖范围内裁定个人、公司或其他法律实体的权利和义务的权力。美国法院可以通过几种方式对诉讼当事人行使属人管辖权。

相关知识拓展：

美国法院民事案件的司法管辖权，分为对事管辖权（Subject Matter Jurisdiction）和对人管辖权 (Personal Jurisdiction)。

和我国不同，美国有两种不同的类型的法院：联邦法院和州法院。对事管辖权（Subject Matter Jurisdiction）考察的是该案是由联邦法院还是由州法院审理。一般来说，联邦法院只审理两类案件（1）诉由为联邦法律的案件，例如专利法、版权法、移民法、破产法等问题。（2）被告和原告分别属于不同州，且金额超过一定数额的案件。其他案件则由州法院管辖，比较典型如合同纠纷。

对人管辖权(Personal Jurisdiction)，也有人把它翻译为属人管辖权，则如文首所述。

判断对人管辖权的三步骤：

步骤一：考察被告是否为该州的居民或者公司。对大部分案件而言，原告通常会选择去被告所在州起诉。因为被告所在州的法院对被告具有当然司法管辖权。但对于原告来说，就被告选择管辖地对他来说有时并不方便，尤其是被告是外国公司的情况下，那么原告就会优先选择自己所在的州起诉。在这种情况下就要看被告是否同意接受管辖或者原告是否有机会在被告出现在该州时将诉状送达给被告。然而这样幸运的情况不是总会发生。当被告与原告不在同一州的情况时，不可避免的就会涉及到各州长臂管辖规则，这时就需要进入到第二步来考察。

步骤二：这一步其实是看根据法院地所在州的长臂管辖规定，该州的联邦法院是否可以对被告行使管辖权。需要说明的是虽然是联邦法院的案件，在这里还是需要考察联邦法院所在州的长臂管辖规定。各州情况不一，但是总体来说长臂管辖权的立法包括两大类。1、纽约州类型；2、加州类型。

步骤三：正当程序（due process)

在管辖权争议案件中对被告行使管辖权是否符合正当程序往往是双方讨论的焦点，也是最为复杂的部分。根据判例，法院会根据被告和所在州的联系分为两种情况来考察。第一种情况是一般管辖权（General Jurisdiction）。第二种情况是特别管辖权（Specific Jurisdiction）。